Müller Cell Metabolic Chaos During Retinal Degeneration

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We have a new publication out (direct link, open access), Müller Cell Metabolic Chaos During Retinal Degeneration authored by Rebecca Pfeiffer, Robert Marc, Mineo Kondo, Hiroko Terasaki and Bryan W. Jones.

Abstract:

Müller cells play a critical role in retinal metabolism and are among the first cells to demonstrate metabolic changes in retinal stress or disease. The timing, extent, regulation, and impacts of these changes are not yet known. We evaluated metabolic phenotypes of Müller cells in the degenerating retina.

Retinas harvested from wild-type (WT) and rhodopsin Tg P347L rabbits were fixed in mixed aldehydes and resin embedded for computational molecular phenotyping (CMP). CMP facilitates small molecule fingerprinting of every cell in the retina, allowing evaluation of metabolite levels in single cells.

CMP revealed signature variations in metabolite levels across Müller cells from TgP347L retina. In brief, neighboring Müller cells demonstrated variability in taurine, glutamate, glutamine, glutathione, glutamine synthetase (GS), and CRALBP. This variability showed no correlation across metabolites, implying the changes are functionally chaotic rather than simply heterogeneous. The inability of any clustering algorithm to classify Müller cell as a single class in the TgP347L retina is a formal proof of metabolic variability in the present in degenerating retina.

Although retinal degeneration is certainly the trigger, Müller cell metabolic alterations are not a coherent response to the microenvironment. And while GS is believed to be the primary enzyme responsible for the conversion of glutamate to glutamine in the retina, alternative pathways appear to be unmasked in degenerating retina. Somehow, long term remodeling involves loss of Müller cell coordination and identity, which has negative implications for therapeutic interventions that target neurons alone.

Pattern Recognition Reveals Different Visual Field Signature Patterns When Using Spatially Equated Test Sizes Compared To Standard Goldmann III Alone

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This abstract was presented today, May 2th at the 2016 Association for Research in Vision and Opthalmology (ARVO) meetings in Seattle, Washington by Michael Kalloniatis, Robert E. Marc, Sieu K. Khuu, Jack Phu, Barbara Zangerl, Lisa Nivison-Smith, Bryan W. Jones, and Rebecca L. Pfeiffer. 

Abstract Number: 4745

Author Block: Michael Kalloniatis1 , Robert E. Marc3 , Sieu K. Khuu2 , Jack Phu1 , Barbara Zangerl1 , Lisa Nivison-Smith1 , Bryan W. Jones3 , Rebecca L. Pfeiffer3 
1 Centre for Eye Health, SOVS, University of New South Wales, Kensington, New South Wales, Australia; 2 SOVS, UNSW, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; 3 Univ of Utah/Moran Eye Center, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States

Disclosure Block:Michael Kalloniatis, 2014/094035 A1 (USA) and 13865419.9 (EU) (Code P (Patent) ); Robert E. Marc, None; Sieu K. Khuu, 2014/094035 A1 (USA) and 13865419.9 (EU) (Code P (Patent) ); Jack Phu, None; Barbara Zangerl, None; Lisa Nivison-Smith, None; Bryan W. Jones, None; Rebecca L. Pfeiffer, None

Purpose:To identify areas within the visual field with matching contrast sensitivity (CS) signature patterns as a function of age using pattern recognition and determine the discrimination of CS data when using spatially equated test stimuli compared to the single size Goldmann (G)III alone.

Methods:52 subjects (classified in decade age groups from 20-60+ years) were tested using the Humphrey Visual Field Analyser 30-2 paradigm in full threshold mode for GI to GV. At least two thresholds were obtained per size. Two visual field maps were analyzed: a spatially equated visual field where GI was used centrally, GII mid-peripherally and GIII in the outer rings to place the test size at or close to complete spatial summation and a second where a single GIII was used at all locations. Thresholds were expressed as dB* (Khuu & Kalloniatis, IOVS 2015), converted to pixel values and analyzed using an unsupervised classification using isodata clustering (PCI, Geomatica, Canada). Class separation was extracted across the ages to develop dot plots of decade measures of CS.

Results:The 77 data points across the central 60° visual field can be distilled into 6 functional classes using the spatially equated visual field (Class separation 1). The 6 classes reflect areas in visual space that change in a similar manner across the ages. The use of the single GIII target resulted in only 4 classes displaying a poorer discrimination over the central visual field (Class separation 2). Extracted dot plots from class separation illustrated average CS within each class could be assessed across the decades.

Conclusions:When using spatially equated visual field testing, concentric areas were separated into distinct CS signatures consistent with known visual field sensitivity. We confirmed these areas change systematically with age. GIII failed to discriminate central areas of the 30-2 that likely reflects the fact that this size operates outside complete spatial summation and thus may not be the optimal test size for assessing visual function in the central visual field. More importantly, we showed pattern recognition can be applied to complex visual field data sets to identify common features and age-related visual function changes. This analysis allows regions to be averaged as they are statistically identical: this approach will likely assist structure-function studies.

Progressive Retinal Remodeling In A Transgenic Rabbit Model Of Retinitis Pigmentosa

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This poster was presented today, May 2th at the 2016 Association for Research in Vision and Opthalmology (ARVO) meetings in Seattle, Washington by Rebecca L. Pfeiffer, Bryan W. Jones, and Robert E. Marc.

Posterboard #: D0246

Abstract Number: 2256 – D0246

Author Block: Rebecca L. Pfeiffer1,2 , Bryan W. Jones1,2 , Robert E. Marc1,2 
1 Ophthalmology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States; 2 Interdepartmental Program in Neuroscience, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States

Purpose:Retinal degenerations are a collection of neural disorders, usually precipitated by photoreceptor degeneration. All display progressive metabolic alterations and neural loss following the death of the photoreceptors. Although it has been demonstrated that the metabolism of Müller cells (MCs) is drastically altered in degeneration, the full impact of these changes on surrounding neurons and long-term characterization of remodeling was previously unavailable, due to short lifespans of model organisms.

Methods:Retinal samples were collected from WT and Tg P347L rabbits at ages ranging from 3 months to 6 years. Following enucleation, retinas were divided into fragments and incubated for 10 minutes at 35 degrees C in D-isomers of Glutamate (dE), Glutamine (dQ), or Aspartate (dD) and Ames-bicarbonate medium to explore retinal transport capabilities at each stage of degeneration. Retinas were then fixed in mixed aldehyde buffer and processed for transmission electron microscope connectomics, immunocytochemistry for a range of macromolecules, and computational molecular phenotyping for small molecules (CMP) (J Comp Neurol. 464:1, 2003).

Results:CMP reveals that single metabolic phenotype of MCs splits and diverges into many phenotypes continuously throughout degeneration. Further, all neuronal classes continue to die throughout degeneration. By 6 years, over 90% of neurons are lost, and the remaining glutamatergic neurons have altered metabolic signatures with a large increase in aspartate levels, at times exceeding glutamate. Transport of the D-isomers indicates that glutamate transport capabilities remain intact until the latest stages of degeneration. This may not be true of their GABA transporters.

Conclusions:These results suggest three main conclusions. First, retinal remodeling in degeneration is relentlessly progressive long after all photoreceptors have disappeared. Second, cell types previously thought to remain after degeneration onset, such as ganglion cells, will also ultimately die and the cells not lost often will change their metabolism. The consequence of this metabolic change in neurons is not yet fully explored. Third, the persistent robust glutamate transport capabilities of Müller cells indicate Müller cells can metabolize glutamate despite the massive loss of glutamine synthetase activity, likely unmasking alternate metabolic pathways.

Metabolic Changes During Late Stage Retinal Degeneration In Heterozygous Crx Mutant Cats (CrxRdy/+)

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This abstract was presented today, May 2th at the 2016 Association for Research in Vision and Opthalmology (ARVO) meetings in Seattle, Washington by Laurence Occelli, Bryan W. Jones, and Simon M. Petersen-Jones.

Posterboard #: D0250

Abstract Number: 2260 – D0250

Author Block: Laurence M. Occelli1 , Bryan W. Jones2 , Simon M. Petersen-Jones1 
1 Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States; 2 Ophthalmology, Moran Eye Center, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States

Disclosure Block:Laurence M. Occelli, None; Bryan W. Jones, None; Simon M. Petersen-Jones, None

Purpose: CRX is a transcription factor essential for normal photoreceptor development and survival. The CrxRdy cat has a spontaneous mutation in Crx. Early disease stages in heterozygous cats (CrxRdy/+) mimics severe Leber’s congenital amaurosis. This study investigated the timing and extent of retinal remodeling in the late stages of retinal degeneration. This will help optimizing the best time for therapies such as retinal prosthesis or optogenetics before retinal rewiring and glial scar become too extensive.

Methods: CrxRdy/+ cats from 6 weeks to 10 years of age were investigated. Eyes were fixed in mixed aldehyde buffer and processed for immunocytochemistry for computational molecular phenotyping for macromolecules and small molecules (CMP) including GABA, glycine, glutamate, taurine, glutamine, aspartate, rhodopsin and red green opsin (J Comp Neurol. 464:1 2003). Samples from 5 retinal areas were collected: area centralis, mid- and far-superior as well as mid- and far-inferior regions.

Results: CMP revealed an absence of red green opsin and a decrease in rhodopsin expression with mislocalization to the photoreceptor inner segments (IS) and cell bodies as early as 6 weeks of age. Inner and outer photoreceptor segments (IS/OS) were present but short at 6 weeks of age. By 12 weeks of age, very few of the stunted OS remained and IS were very short. At that age, Müller cells had become activated initiating hypertrophy, and indicating cell stress. By 5 years of age, a Müller cell seal was clearly present disrupting the retinal lamination via glial columns. Migration of inner nuclear layer cells with inverted and everted cells was also observed from an early age as well as horizontal and amacrine cell sprouting. By 5 years of age, microneuromas formations had developed (Fig.1). Extreme thinning and remodeling was observed in the peripheral retina of older animals and retinal pigment epithelium was lost from the area centralis.

Conclusions: This study indicates that retinal degeneration in the CrxRdy/+ cat retina follows the 3 proposed phases of retinal remodeling. As early as 12 weeks of age, some glial reaction to photoreceptor death was observed followed by formation of a glial seal, rewiring and inner nuclear layer cells migration. Finally, microneuroma formation, severe retinal thinning and remodeling was developed.

2-nm Resolution Anatomy of Retinal Neuro-Glial-Vascular Architecture

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This abstract was presented today, May 2th at the 2016 Association for Research in Vision and Opthalmology (ARVO) meetings in Seattle, Washington by Jefferson R. Brown, Rebecca L. Pfeiffer, Crystal Sigulinsky, Felix Vazquez-Chona, Daniel Emrich, Bryan W. Jones, Robert E. Marc.

Abstract Number: 995

Author Block: Jefferson R. Brown1 , Rebecca L. Pfeiffer1 , Crystal Sigulinsky1 , Felix Vazquez-Chona1 , Daniel Emrich1 , Bryan W. Jones1 , Robert E. Marc1 
1 Dept of Ophthalmology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States

Disclosure Block:Jefferson R. Brown, None; Rebecca L. Pfeiffer, None; Crystal Sigulinsky, None; Felix Vazquez-Chona, None; Daniel Emrich, None; Bryan W. Jones, None; Robert E. Marc, Signature Immunologics (Code I (Personal Financial Interest) )

Purpose:Retinal vasculature is strongly affected by degenerative pathologies and in turn, may also contribute to their progression. However, much of what we understand about the normal, healthy interaction between neurons, glia, and blood vessels at the ultrastructural level is limited to single section electron microscopy. The technology of serial section transmission electron microscopy (ssTEM) extends the high definition of TEM imaging into three dimensions to create volumes, allowing for more thorough visualization and analysis of the vascular-glial-neuronal complex.

Methods:RC2 is a 40TB ssTEM volume of over 1,400 horizontal sections of retinal tissue derived from an adult female C57BL/6J mouse. The tissue sample is 250 um in diameter and spans the outer nuclear layer to the vitreal surface. Baseline resolution is 2.18nm per pixel. Visualization, navigation and metadata annotations of the database are made via the Viking software suite.

Results:Much of the retinal vascular basement membrane directly contacts Muller cells. In the ganglion cell layer, direct basement membrane contact with astrocytes is frequent. Microglia commonly contact the basement membrane, and occasionally direct contact of neurons onto basement membrane was observed. Full 3D reconstruction of all vascular pathways with associated endothelia and pericytes within the volume was completed, demonstrating that all the retinal capillary layers are continuous with one another [Figure].

Conclusions:The presence of occasional direct neuronal contact onto vascular basement membrane supports earlier work by Ochs and colleagues (2000) and suggests the blood-retina barrier does not universally involve retinal glia. However, since such contacts are extremely sparse, it remains to be seen whether this finding has biologic significance, though their existence suggests significance. The RC2 volume is a valuable resource to aid in discovery of defining characteristics of wild type neurovascular architecture.


The intro figure is a side view of reconstruction of all vasculature within the RC2 volume. Vessels at the top of the figure correspond to the outer plexiform layer, while those at the bottom correspond to the ganglion cell layer. This capillary plexus is one continuous structure. Visualization by VikingView software.

A Targeted Inhibitor Of The Alternative Complement Pathway Accelerates Recovery From Smoke-Induced Ocular Injury

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We have a new publication out, A Targeted Inhibitor Of The Alternative Complement Pathway Accelerates Recovery From Smoke-Induced Ocular Injury authored by Alex Woodell, Bryan W. Jones, Tucker Williamson, Gloriane Schnabolk, Stephen Tomlinson, Carl Atkinson and Bärbel Rohrer.

Abstract:
PURPOSE. Morphological and genetic evidence exists that an overactive complement system driven by the complement alternative pathway (CAP) is involved in pathogenesis of age- related macular degeneration (AMD). Smoking is the only modifiable risk factor for AMD. As we have shown that smoke-related ocular pathology can be prevented in mice that lack an essential activator of CAP, we ask here whether this pathology can be reversed by increasing inhibition in CAP.

METHODS. Mice were exposed to either cigarette smoke (CS) or filtered air (6 hours/day, 5 days/week, 6 months). Smoke-exposed animals were then treated with the CAP inhibitor (CR2-fH) or vehicle control (PBS) for 3 months. Spatial frequency and contrast sensitivity were assessed by optokinetic response paradigms at 6 and 9 months; additional readouts included assessment of retinal morphology by electron microscopy (EM) and gene expression analysis by quantitative PCR.

RESULTS. The CS mice treated with CR2-fH showed significant improvement in contrast threshold compared to PBS-treated mice, whereas spatial frequency was unaffected by CS or pharmacological intervention. Treatment with CR2-fH in CS animals reversed thinning of the retina observed in PBS-treated mice as analyzed by spectral-domain optical coherence tomography, and reversed most morphological changes in RPE and Bruch’s membrane seen in CS animals by EM.

CONCLUSIONS. Taken together, these findings suggest that CAP inhibitors not only prevent, but have the potential to accelerate, the clearance of complement-mediated ocular injury. Improving our understanding of the regulation of the CAP pathway is paramount to developing novel treatment approaches for AMD.

Retinal Remodeling in Human Retinitis Pigmentosa

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We have a new publication out (Direct Link, Free Open Access), Retinal Remodeling in Human Retinitis Pigmentosa authored by Bryan W. Jones, Rebecca Pfeiffer, Drew Ferrell, Carl Watt, Michael Marmor and Robert Marc.

Abstract: Retinitis Pigmentosa (RP) in the human is a progressive, currently irreversible neural degenerative disease usually caused by gene defects that disrupt the function or architecture of the photoreceptors. While RP can initially be a disease of photoreceptors, there is increasing evidence that the inner retina becomes progressively disorganized as the outer retina degenerates. These alterations have been extensively described in animal models, but remodeling in humans has not been as well characterized. This study, using computational molecular phenotyping (CMP) seeks to advance our understanding of the retinal remodeling process in humans. We describe cone mediated preservation of overall topology, retinal reprogramming in the earliest stages of the disease in retinal bipolar cells, and alterations in both small molecule and protein signatures of neurons and glia. Furthermore, while Müller glia appear to be some of the last cells left in the degenerate retina, they are also one of the first cell classes in the neural retina to respond to stress which may reveal mechanisms related to remodeling and cell death in other retinal cell classes. Also fundamentally important is the finding that retinal network topologies are altered. Our results suggest interventions that presume substantial preservation of the neural retina will likely fail in late stages of the disease. Even early intervention offers no guarantee that the interventions will be immune to progressive remodeling. Fundamental work in the biology and mechanisms of disease progression are needed to support vision rescue strategies.

Store-Operated Calcium Entry In Müller Glia Is Controlled By Synergistic Activation Of TRPC And Orai Channels

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We have a new publication out as collaborators with colleages, Store-Operated Calcium Entry In Müller Glia Is Controlled By Synergistic Activation Of TRPC And Orai Channels authored by Tünde Molnár, Oleg Yarishkin, Peter Barabas, Anthony Iuso, Bryan W. Jones, Robert Marc, Tam Phuong, and David Krizaj.

Bonus, we got the cover!  The image was created by Tam Phuong.

 

Significance: Store-operated Ca2+ signaling represents a major signaling pathway and source of cytosolic Ca2+ in astrocytes. Here, we show that the store-operated response in Müller cells, radial glia that perform key structural, signaling, osmoregulatory and mechanosensory functions within the retina, is mediated through synergistic activation of TRPC and Orai channels. The endfoot disproportionately expresses the depletion sensor STIM1, contains an extraordinarily high density of ER cisternae that shadow neuronal, astrocyte, vascular and axonal structures, interface with mitochondria but also originates SOCE-induced transcellular Ca2+ waves that propagate glial excitation into the proximal retina. These results identify a molecular mechanism that underlies complex interactions between the plasma membrane and calcium stores and contributes to radial glial function, regulation and response to mechanical stress.

Abstract: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is at the epicenter of astrocyte Ca2+ signaling. We sought to identify the molecular mechanism underlying store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) that repletes ER Ca2+ stores in mouse Müller cells. Store depletion, induced through blockade of sequestration transporters in Ca2+-free saline, induced synergistic activation of canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC1) and Orai channels. Store-operated TRPC1 channels were identified by their electrophysiological properties, pharmacological blockers and ablation of the Trpc1 gene. ICRAC (Ca2+ release-activated) currents were identified by ion permeability, voltage-dependence and sensitivity to selective Orai antagonists Synta66 and GSK7975A. Depletion-evoked calcium influx was initiated at the Müller endfoot and apical process, triggering centrifugal propagation of Ca2+ waves into the cell body. EM analysis of the endfoot compartment showed high-density ER cisternae that shadow retinal ganglion cell (RGC) somata and axons, protoplasmic astrocytes, vascular endothelial cells and ER-mitochondrial contacts at the vitreal surface of the endfoot. The mouse retina expresses transcripts encoding both Stim and all known Orai genes; Müller glia predominantly express STIM1 whereas STIM2 is mainly confined to the outer plexiform and retinal ganglion cell layers. Elimination of TRPC1 facilitated Müller gliosis induced by the elevation of intraocular pressure (IOP), suggesting that TRPC channels might play a neuroprotective role during mechanical stress. These findings expand the current knowledge about store-operated signaling in astroglia, as well as calcium signaling pathways in Müller astroglia and functional roles these cells play in retinal physiology and pathology.

Seasonal And Post-Trauma Remodeling Of The Ground Squirrel Retina

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We have a new publication out, Seasonal and post-trauma remodeling in cone-dominant ground squirrel retina authored by Dana Merriman, Ben Sajdak, Wei Li and Bryan W. Jones.

Abstract:

With a photoreceptor mosaic containing ∼85% cones, the ground squirrel is one of the richest known mammalian sources of these important retinal cells. It also has a visual ecology much like the human’s. While the ground squirrel retina is understandably prominent in the cone biochemistry, physiology, and circuitry literature, far less is known about the remodeling potential of its retinal pigment epithelium, neurons, macroglia, or microglia. This review aims to summarize the data from ground squirrel retina to this point in time, and to relate them to data from other brain areas where appropriate. We begin with a survey of the ground squirrel visual system, making comparisons with traditional rodent models and with human. Because this animal’s status as a hibernator often goes unnoticed in the vision literature, we then present a brief primer on hibernation biology. Next we review what is known about ground squirrel retinal remodeling concurrent with deep torpor and with rapid recovery upon re-warming. Notable here is rapidly-reversible, temperature-dependent structural plasticity of cone ribbon synapses, as well as pre- and post-synaptic plasticity throughout diverse brain regions. It is not yet clear if retinal cell types other than cones engage in torpor-associated synaptic remodeling. We end with the small but intriguing literature on the ground squirrel retina’s remodeling responses to insult by retinal detachment. Notable for widespread loss of (cone) photoreceptors, there is surprisingly little remodeling of the RPE or Müller cells. Microglial activation appears minimal, and remodeling of surviving second- and third-order neurons seems absent, but both require further study. In contrast, traumatic brain injury in the ground squirrel elicits typical macroglial and microglial responses. Overall, the data to date strongly suggest a heretofore unrecognized, natural checkpoint between retinal deafferentiation and RPE and Müller cell remodeling events. As we continue to discover them, the unique ways by which ground squirrel retina responds to hibernation or injury may be adaptable to therapeutic use.

Working with SQL Geometry with C#

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After digging around the many spatial libraries available for working with SQL Spatial types offline in the Viking client I’ve settled on Microsoft.SqlServer.Types. The main advantage is the library supports the same functions I have available in SQL server. This is a big advantage in the UI when I can use STContains to do hit testing for arbitrarily complicated shapes. What I have not figured out is how to build a spatial index and easily render the CURVEDPOLYGON geometry.